Qualitative research Essay

Abstract This paper is the first of a series of leash articles relating to a racing shell learning conducted at Fairfield University to mensurate expressions of the rapid introduction of In setion Technology at the institution. This article deals with the temperament of the paradox faced by Fairfield University, the characteristics of the skid methodology, and lays the foundation for the pick oution of this search proficiency for the stream theater. The paper begins with an Introduction section to familiarize the referee with the show show subject field organization.The discovering section on look Methodology explores the history, and n archeozoic of the applications of the proficiency. The section ends with unique(predicate) seek protocols for inquiryers. Introduction Fairfield University is a private wanton arts institution of astir(predicate) 3,000 full time undergraduate students and intimately 1,000 graduate school students. The undergraduate students ato mic number 18 distributed through the College of Arts and Sciences, the train of Business, and the develop of Nursing. The graduate students be in the Graduate School of instruction, the School of Business, and the School of Nursing. in that location are as well as wear time students in the School of Continuing Education and the BEI School of Engineering. As with m some(prenominal) divergent private institutions of higher education, Fairfield University faces many ch eitherenges. These ch completelyenges come from the declining population of college age students and the emergence cost of running the institution. The publications result support the preceding asseveration (Crossland, 1980), but provide little comfort to the institution. sensation of the areas of greatest fretting to college managers is the continuing cost of checker technology.With the constant contract to increase round salaries, it is like salaries, inadvisable to reduce the outlay on teaching technology. Interviews that were conducted by this searcher with the deans and managers indicated that more or less of the peer institutions of Fairfield University are in fact doing as much if non more in this area. Hence any break of serve in the effort to maintain technological systemal systemal currency would result in a competitive disadvantage for the institution. Therein lies the administrative financial ch anyenge.The write down on information technology moldinessiness be maintained at a time of declining r pull downues (Nicklin, 1992). The field of information technology at a university is very broad and could encompass many technologies hitherto not considered indoors its purview. However, in that location has been a relentless and indeed accelerating pace of convergence of the technologies in telecommunications, library services, and video services. The current learning is interrelateed only with the dioramas of information technology as it relates to academic computing and will focus on instructional and research computing.The goals of this hit the books take an interrogation of the (a) managerial and (b) scotch formulations of the rapid eruditeness of information technology. The goalives deriving from those goals are An assessment of the categories of entropy processor free fall in higher education. An evaluation of the managerial issues of computing, including the centralization/ decentralisation of computing, client/ waiter computing and the aspects of the Internet and the World Wide wind vane (WWW) Establish a basis for understanding the current and future economic aspects of information technology acquisition.The research questions arising from the above targets were as follows Objective 1 above is address by the question What patterns of acquisition emerge from the current computing surroundings and the perceived makes for computing? Objective 2 is addressed by the question What characteristics of the categories o f computing intent contribute to the patterns of acquisition? The five categories positive by King and Kraemer (1985) and adapted for theatrical role by levy (1988) in his training at the University of Arizona, are employ in this write up, to examine the computing use at Fairfield University.Objective 3 is addressed by the question What managerial issues arise from the rapid acquisition of information technology and how authoritative defend those technologies become to the organization? Objective 4 is addressed by the question How will the institution balance the take away for technological changes with the need to continue the accomplishment of routine trade union movements?. Samuel Levy (1988) conducted a get hold of of instructional and research computing at the University of Arizona. This study replicates and extends the Levy (1988) study, and was conducted at Fairfield University.The current study extends the Levy (1988) study in its examination of aspects of the I nternet, the World Wide Web, and Client/Server computing. Levy (1988) established the use of the matter study as appropriate for the research project, and this researcher also use the literature to actualise the use of example methodology in the study at Fairfield University. The history and development of deterrent example methodology is reviewed, in support of the current fiber study at Fairfield University. There put one across been periods of intense use followed by periods of disuse of this proficiency, as documented by Hamel, Dufour, and Fortin (1993) as well as early(a)wises.The relevance of that history to this study is grievous in that it establishes the know advantages and disadvantages of the methodology. The particular technique of a mavin- illustration study is reviewed, since that is the specific implementation of a fibre study at Fairfield University and was also utilize by Levy (1988). Case Study Methodology The history of solecism study research is mark ed by periods of intense use and periods of disuse. The earlier use of this form of research arouse be traced to Europe, predominantly to France.The methodology in the United States was about closely associated with The University of gelt Department of Sociology. From the early 1900s until 1935, The moolah School was preeminent in the field and the semen of a great deal of the literature. There was a wealth of bodily in Chicago, since it was a period of immigration to the United States and variant aspects of immigration of different national classs to the city were studied and notifyed on (Hamel et al. , 1993). Issues of poverty, unemployment, and new(prenominal) conditions deriving from immigration were saintly suited to the case study methodology.Zonabend (1992) stated that case study is d wiz by giving special help to completeness in thoughtfulness, reconstruction, and depth psychology of the cases under study. Case study is done in a way that incorporates the vie ws of the actors in the case under study. The field of sociology is associated close to strongly with case study research, and during the period aceing up to 1935, some(prenominal) capers were raised by researchers in former(a) handle. This coincided with a movement inside sociology, to make it more scientific. This meant providing some quantitative billhookments to the research jut out and summary.Since The Chicago School was most identified with this methodology, in that location were serious attacks on their primacy. This resulted in the denigration of case study as a methodology. In 1935, at that place was a public dispute between Columbia University professors, who were championing the scientific method, and The Chicago School and its supporters. The outcome was a victory for Columbia University and the consequent even out in the use of case study as a research methodology. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) was careful to reject the critiques of case study as poorly found ed, do in the midst of methodological conflict.He asserted that the drawbacks of case study were not beingness attacked, rather the immaturity of sociology as a discipline was being displayed. As the use of quantitative methods advanced, the decline of the case study hastened. However, in the 1960s, researchers were becoming concerned about the limitations of quantitative methods. Hence there was a renewed interest in case study. Strauss and Glaser (1967) developed the conceit of grounded theory. This along with some well regarded studies accelerated the renewed use of the methodology.A grass criticism of case study methodology is that its dependence on a single case renders it incapable of providing a generalizing conclusion. Yin (1993) presented Giddens view that considered case methodology microscopic because it lacked a fit number of cases. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) and Yin (1984, 1989a, 1989b, 1993, 1994) forcefully argued that the relation size of the sample whether 2, 10, or 100 cases are used, does not transmogrify a multiple case into a macroscopic study. The goal of the study should establish the parameters, and then should be applied to all research.In this way, even a single case could be considered acceptable, provided it met the established objective. The literature provides some insight into the acceptance of an experimental prototype to perceive the singularity of the object of study. This commands the transformation from the local to the global for explanation. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) characterized such singularity as a concentration of the global in the local. Yin (1989a) stated that general applicability results from the cast of methodological qualities of the case, and the rigor with which the case is constructed.He detailed the procedures that would satisfy the infallible methodological rigor. Case study shadow be seen to satisfy the triplet tenets of the qualitative method describing, understanding, and explaining. Th e literature makes numerous examples of applications of the case study methodology. The early and most natural examples are to be found in the fields of Law and Medicine, where cases make up the large body of the student work. However, there are some areas that have used case study techniques extensively, specially in government and in evaluative situations.The government studies were carried out to conciliate whether particular programs were efficient or if the goals of a particular program were being met. The evaluative applications were carried out to assess the effectiveness of educational initiatives. In both types of investigations, merely quantitative techniques tended to obscure some of the important information that the researchers indispensable to uncover. The body of literature in case study research is uncivil and limited (Yin, 1994), in comparison to that of experimental or quasi-experimental research.The requirements and inflexibility of the last mentioned forms of research make case studies the only viable alternative in some instances. It is a fact that case studies do not need to have a minimum number of cases, or to randomly select cases. The researcher is called upon to work with the situation that presents itself in each case. Case studies burn be single or multiple-case designs, where a multiple design must follow a replication rather than sampling logic. When no former(a) cases are available for replication, the researcher is limited to single-case designs.Yin (1994) pointed out that generalization of results, from both single or multiple designs, is made to theory and not to populations. bigeminal cases strengthen the results by replicating the pattern-matching, thus increasing confidence in the rigour of the theory. Applications of case study methodology have been carried out in unsound Youth Programs (Yin, 1993) by several researchers. The effects of commwholey- found prevention programs have been widely investigated empl oy case methodology.Where the high risk youth studies assumed a single case evaluation, these studies have typically used a array of cases as a multiple-case study. This has been true in the various substance villainy prevention programs that are commwholey- found (Holder, 1987 Sabol, 1990 Yin, 1993). Numerous such studies sponsored by the U. S. General account statement Office are distributed in the literature between Evans (1976) and Gopelrud (1990). These studies have asleep(p) beyond the quantitative statistical results and explained the conditions through the positioning of the actors. Thus case study evaluations can cover both process and outcomes, because they can imply both quantitative and qualitative info. There are several examples of the use of case methodology in the literature. Yin (1993) listed several examples along with the appropriate research design in each case. There were suggestions for a general approach to designing case studies, and also recommendati ons for exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive case studies. Each of those three approaches can be either single or multiple-case studies, where multiple-case studies are replicatory, not sampled cases.There were also specific examples in education, and management information systems. Education has embraced the case method for instructional use. Some of the applications are reviewed in this paper. In exploratory case studies, fieldwork, and data collection may be undertaken previous to definition of the research questions and hypotheses. This type of study has been considered as a prelude to some social research. However, the framework of the study must be created frontwards of time. Pilot projects are very useful in determining the final examination protocols that will be used.Survey questions may be dropped or added based on the outcome of the pilot study. Selecting cases is a difficult process, but the literature provides guidance in this area (Yin, 1989a). Stake (1995) reco mmended that the selection offers the opportunity to maximize what can be learned, knowing that time is limited. Hence the cases that are selected should be easy and willing subjects. A good instrumental case does not have to defend its typicality. Explanatory cases are suitable for doing causal studies. In very complex and multivariate cases, the analysis can make use of pattern-matching techniques.Yin and Moore (1988) conducted a study to examine the reason why some research findings get into practical use. They used a funded research project as the unit of analysis, where the idea was constant but the project varied. The utilization outcomes were explained by three extend to theories a familiarity-driven theory, a problem-solving theory, and a social-interaction theory. Knowledge-driven theory meat that ideas and discoveries from basic research eventually become commercial products. Problem-solving theory follows the identical path, but originates not with a researcher, but with an external source identifying a problem.The social-interaction theory claims that researchers and users belong to overlapping professional networks and are in frequent communication. Descriptive cases require that the researcher begin with a descriptive theory, or face the possibility that problems will occur during the project. Pyecha (1988) used this methodology to study special education, using a pattern-matching procedure. Several states were studied and the data about each states activities were compared to some other, with idealized theoretic patterns. Thus what is implied in this type of study is the formation of hypotheses of cause-effect relationships.Hence the descriptive theory must cover the depth and scope of the case under study. The selection of cases and the unit of analysis is developed in the same manner as the other types of case studies. Case studies have been increasingly used in education. turn law and medical schools have been using the technique fo r an extended period, the technique is being applied in a variety of instructional situations. Schools of parentage have been most aggressive in the implementation of case based learning, or diligent learning (Boisjoly & DeMichiell, 1994).Harvard University has been a live oner in this area, and cases developed by the faculty have been published for use by other institutions. The School of Business at Fairfield University has revised the curriculum so that in place of the individual longitudinal courses in the areas of Management, Marketing, Operations, Finance, and Information Systems, students take one course. That course is intentional around cases that encompass those disciplines, but are presented in an integrated manner. The students are therefore made aware of the inter link upness of the various disciplines and begin to think in terms of wider problems and solutions.Later courses add the internationalist dimension to the overall picture. Case studies have been used to develop little thinking (Alvarez, et al. , 1990). There are also interactive language courses (Carney, 1995), courses designed to broaden the students horizons (Brearley, 1990), and even for technical courses (Greenwald, 1991), and philosophical ones (Garvin, 1991). This investigation is a case study of the aspects of Information Technology that are related to client/server computing, the Internet, and the World Wide Web, at Fairfield University.Thus this paper examines issues that will hyperbolize the readers knowledge of case study methodology as it relates to the design and execution of such a study. Yin (1994) recommended the use of case-study protocol as part of a carefully designed research project that would include the following sections Overview of the project (project objectives and case study issues) Field procedures (credentials and entry to sites) Questions (specific questions that the investigator must keep in reason during data collection) Guide for the report (ou tline, format for the narrative) (Yin, 1994, p.64)The quintessential characteristic of case studies is that they strive towards a holistic understanding of cultural systems of action (Feagin, Orum, & Sjoberg, 1990). Cultural systems of action refer to sets of interrelated activities engaged in by the actors in a social situation. The case studies must always have boundaries (Stake, 1995). Case study research is not sampling research, which is a fact asserted by all the study researchers in the field, including Yin, Stake, Feagin and others. However, selecting cases must be done so as to maximize what can be learned, in the period of time available for the study.The unit of analysis is a critical factor in the case study. It is typically a system of action rather than an individual or group of individuals. Case studies tend to be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined. Case studies are multi-perspectival analyses. Th is means that the researcher considers not just the voice and vista of the actors, but also of the relevant groups of actors and the interaction between them. This one aspect is a salient point in the characteristic that case studies possess. They get hold of a voice to the powerless and voiceless.When sociological studies present many studies of the dispossessed and powerless, they do so from the viewpoint of the elite (Feagin, Orum, & Sjoberg, 1991). Case study is known as a triangulated research strategy. Snow and Anderson (cited in Feagin, Orum, & Sjoberg, 1991) asserted that triangulation can occur with data, investigators, theories, and even methodologies. Stake (1995) stated that the protocols that are used to ensure accuracy and alternative explanations are called triangulation. The need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to confirm the validity of the processes.In case studies, this could be done by using multiple sources of data (Yin, 1984). The problem in c ase studies is to establish meaning rather than location. Designing Case Studies Yin (1994) identified five components of research design that are important for case studies A studys questions Its propositions, if any Its unit(s) of analysis The logic linking the data to the propositions The criteria for interpret the findings (Yin, 1994, p. 20). The studys questions are most likely to be how and why questions, and their definition is the first task of the researcher.The studys propositions sometimes derive from the how and why questions, and are laborsaving in focusing the studys goals. Not all studies need to have propositions. An exploratory study, rather than having propositions, would have a stated purpose or criteria on which the success will be judged. The unit of analysis defines what the case is. This could be groups, organizations or countries, but it is the primary unit of analysis. Linking the data to propositions and the criteria for interpreting the findings are the to the lowest degree developed aspects in case studies (Yin, 1994).Campbell (1975) set forth pattern-matching as a useful technique for linking data to the propositions. Campbell (1975) asserted that pattern-matching is a situation where several pieces of information from the same case may be related to some supposititious proposition. His study showed, through pattern-matching, that the observed drop in the level of traffic fatalities in Connecticut was not related to the visiting of the speed limit. His study also illustrated some of the difficulties in establishing the criteria for interpreting the findings.Construct validity is especially problematic in case study research. It has been a source of criticism because of potential investigator subjectivity. Yin (1994) getd three remedies to neutralize this using multiple sources of attest, establishing a chain of picture, and having a draft case study report reviewed by key informants. Internal validity is a concern only i n causal (explanatory) cases. This is usually a problem of inferences in case studies, and can be dealt with using pattern-matching, which has been described above. impertinent validity deals with knowing whether the results are generalizable beyond the immediate case. Some of the criticism against case studies in this area relate to single-case studies. However, that criticism is directed at the statistical and not the analytical generalization that is the basis of case studies. dependability is achieved in many ways in a case study. One of the most important methods is the development of the case study protocol. Case studies can be either single or multiple-case designs. Single cases are used to confirm or challenge a theory, or to represent a unique or extreme case (Yin, 1994).Single-case studies are also ideal for revelatory cases where an observer may have access to a phenomenon that was antecedently inaccessible. Single-case designs require careful investigation to avoid misr epresentation and to maximize the investigators access to the evidence. These studies can be holistic or embedded, the latter(prenominal) occurring when the same case study involves more than one unit of analysis. Multiple-case studies follow a replication logic. This is not to be confused with sampling logic where a selection is made out of a population, for inclusion in the study.This type of sample selection is improper in a case study. Each individual case study consists of a whole study, in which facts are gathered from various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts. Yin (1994) asserted that a case study investigator must be able to perish as a senior investigator during the course of data collection. There should be a period of training which begins with the examination of the definition of the problem and the development of the case study design. If there is only a single investigator, this dexterity not be necessary.The training would cover aspects that the investiga tor involve to know, such as the reason for the study, the type of evidence being sought, and what variations might be expected. This could take the form of discussion rather than stiff lectures. A case study protocol contains more than the survey instrument, it should also contain procedures and general rules that should be followed in using the instrument. It is to be created prior to the data collection phase. It is essential in a multiple-case study, and desirable in a single-case study.Yin (1994) presented the protocol as a major component in insist the reliability of the case study research. A typical protocol should have the following sections An overview of the case study project (objectives, issues, topics being investigated) Field procedures (credentials and access to sites, sources of information) Case study questions (specific questions that the investigator must keep in mind during data collection) A guide for case study report (outline, format for the narrative) (Y in, 1994, p. 64). The overview should communicate to the reader the general topic of inquiry and the purpose of the case study.The field procedures mostly involve data collection issues and must be properly designed. The investigator does not control the data collection environment (Yin, 1994) as in other research strategies hence the procedures become all the more important. During interviews, which by nature are open ended, the subjects schedule must dictate the activity (Stake, 1995). Gaining access to the subject organization, having sufficient resources while in the field, clearly scheduling data collection activities, and providing for out of the blue(predicate) events, must all be planned for.Case study questions are posed to the investigator, and must serve to remind that person of the data to be collected and its possible sources. The guide for the case study report is frequently neglected, but case studies do not have the uniform outline, as do other research reports. It is essential to plan this report as the case develops, to avoid problems at the end. Stake (1995), and Yin (1994) identified at least six sources of evidence in case studies. The following is not an legitimate list, but reflects the research of both Yin (1994) and Stake (1995)Documents archival records Interviews Direct thoughtfulness Participant-observation Physical artifacts Documents could be letters, memoranda, agendas, administrative documents, newspaper articles, or any document that is germane to the investigation. In the interest of triangulation of evidence, the documents serve to corroborate the evidence from other sources. Documents are also useful for making inferences about events. Documents can lead to false leads, in the hands of in go through researchers, which has been a criticism of case study research.Documents are communications between parties in the study, the researcher being a vicarious observer keeping this in mind will help the investigator avoid being m isled by such documents. Archival documents can be service records, organizational records, lists of names, survey data, and other such records. The investigator has to be careful in evaluating the accuracy of the records before using them. Even if the records are quantitative, they might still not be accurate. Interviews are one of the most important sources of case study information.There are several forms of interviews that are possible Open-ended, Focused, and Structured or survey. In an unrestricted interview, key respondents are asked to comment about certain events. They may propose solutions or provide insight into events. They may also corroborate evidence obtained from other sources. The researcher must avoid becoming dependent on a single informant, and seek the same data from other sources to range its authenticity. The focused interview is used in a situation where the respondent is interviewed for a short period of time, usually answering set questions.This techniqu e is often used to confirm data collected from another source. The merged interview is similar to a survey, and is used to gather data in cases such as neighborhood studies. The questions are detailed and developed in advance, much as they are in a survey. Direct observation occurs when a field visit is conducted during the case study. It could be as easy as casual data collection activities, or formal protocols to measure and record behaviors. This technique is useful for providing additional information about the topic being studied.The reliability is enhanced when more than one observer is convoluted in the task. Glesne and Peshkin (1992) recommended that researchers should be as unobtrusive as the wallpaper. Participant-observation makes the researcher into an active participant in the events being studied. This often occurs in studies of neighborhoods or groups. The technique provides some unusual opportunities for collecting data, but could face some major problems as well. The researcher could well alter the course of events as part of the group, which may not be helpful to the study.Physical artifacts can be tools, instruments, or some other physical evidence that may be collected during the study as part of a field visit. The perspective of the researcher can be broadened as a result of the discovery. It is important to keep in mind that not all sources are relevant for all case studies (Yin, 1994). The investigator should be capable of dealing with all of them, should it be necessary, but each case will present different opportunities for data collection. There are some conditions that arise when a case researcher must start data collection before the study questions have been define and finalized (Yin, 1994).This is likely to be successful only with an experienced investigator. Another important point to review is the benefit of using rival hypotheses and theories as a means of adding quality control to the case study. This improves the scholar ship of the fairness and serious thinking of the researcher. Analyzing Case Study Evidence This aspect of the case study methodology is the least developed and hence the most difficult. As a result, some researchers have suggested that if the study were made causative to statistical analysis, the process would be easier and more acceptable.This quantitative approach would be appealing to some of the critics of the case study methodology. However not all case studies lend themselves to this type of analysis. Miles and Huberman (1984) suggested analytic techniques such as rearranging the arrays, placing the evidence in a matrix of categories, creating flowcharts or data displays, tabulating the frequency of different events, using means, variances and cross tabulations to examine the relationships between variables, and other such techniques to hasten analysis. There must first be an analytic strategy, that will lead to conclusions.Yin (1994) presented two strategies for general use One is to rely on theoretical propositions of the study, and then to analyze the evidence based on those propositions. The other technique is to develop a case description, which would be a framework for organizing the case study. Lynd conducted a widely cited Middletown study in 1929, and used a formal chapter construct to guide the development of the analysis. In other situations, the original objective of the case study may help to identify some causal links that could be analyzed. Pattern-matching is another major mode of analysis.This type of logic compares an empirical pattern with a predicted one. Internal validity is enhanced when the patterns coincide. If the case study is an explanatory one, the patterns may be related to the dependent or independent variables. If it is a descriptive study, the predicted pattern must be defined prior to data collection. Yin (1994) recommended using rival explanations as pattern-matching when there are independent variables involved. This requires the development of rival theoretical propositions, but the overall concern remains the degree to which a pattern matches the predicted one.Yin (1994) encouraged researchers to make every effort to produce an analysis of the highest quality. In order to accomplish this, he presented four principles that should attract the researchers attention Show that the analysis relied on all the relevant evidence Include all major rival interpretations in the analysis Address the most significant aspect of the case study Use the researchers prior, expert knowledge to further the analysis Stake (1995) recommended categorical aggregation as another means of analysis and also suggested developing protocols for this phase of the case study to enhance the quality of the research.He also presented ideas on pattern-matching along the lines that Yin (1994) presented. Runkel (1990) used aggregated measures to obtain relative frequencies in a multiple-case study. Stake (1995) promote coding the data and identifying the issues more clearly at the analysis stage. Eisner and Peshkin (1990) displace a high priority on direct interpretation of events, and lower on interpretation of measurement data, which is another viable alternative to be considered.